Brazil
Form of Government: Federal Republic
Capital: Brasilia
Extension: 8,511,965 sq kms (28 times the size of Italy)
Population: 173 million; white 53.4%, mixed race 39.4%, black 6.1%, Amerindian
0.4%, others 0.7%.
Languages: Portuguese, Amerindian languages
Religion: Catholic 73.6%, Protestant 15.4%, no religion 7.3%, others 3.7%
Literacy: 83%
Infant mortality: 36 per thousand (Italy 5.7 per thousand)
Life expectancy: male 60, female 68 (Italy male 76, female 82)
Population below poverty level: 22%
Exports: coffee, agricultural products, manufactured goods
Foreign debt: 250 billion dollars
Military expenditure: 2.8% of GNP
GEOGRAPHY
Brazil boarders to the north with French Guyana, Suriname Guyana and Venezuela;
to the north-west with Colombia; to the west with Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay and
Argentina and to the south with Uruguay. The east coast boarders the Atlantic
Ocean.
Principal mountains: Pico da Neblina 3,014 m
Principal rivers: the Amazon 3,500 kms of a total length of 6,280 kms in Brazil,
Rio Purus 3,000 kms of a total length of 3,210 kms in Brazil, Rio S.to Francisco
2,900 kms, Rio Tocantins 2,700 kms, Araguaia 2,600 kms, Rio Parano 2,400 kms in
Brazil of a total length of 4,700 kms in Brazil.
Principal lakes: Lagao Mirim 3,000 kms total including Uruguayan part.
Principal islands: Ilha de Marajo 47,573 kms, Ilha Grande do Gurupa 4,864 kms.
Brazil is in central-east South America and covers 50% of the continent. It can
be divided into four tropical zones: the northern plains covered in dense forest
and including the Amazon basin, the semi-arid wooded area to the north-east, the
harsh hills and the mountains with rolling plains that go from the centre-west
to the south and the narrow coastal strip where 30% of the Brazilian population
lives. There is about 58% forest, 22% pasture and 6% cultivated land.
Resources: bauxite, gold, iron ore, magnesium, nickel, phosphates, platinum,
tin, uranium, oil, hydropower and timber.
Natural hazards: recurring droughts in the north-east; floods and occasional
frost in the south.
Environmental problems: deforestation in the Amazon basin is destroying the habitat
and endangering indigenous plant and animal species, illegal wildlife trade, air
and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, San Paolo and other big cities, water pollution
and land destruction caused by mining activity, wetland destruction and oil spills.
HISTORY
Brazil became independent from Portugal in 1821. After a relatively stable period
under the emperors the country plunged into chaos in 1889. The regional oligarchies
did not accept the election results and administered their regions according
to the economic needs of the coffee producers and the landowners, contrasted
by military power. The military took advantage of the economic chaos after the
Wall street crash and brought Getulio Vargas to power bringing the First Republic
to an end.
The Vargas government changed the economic aspect of the country drastically.
Exports were reduced and steel production became a priority. Various reforms were
introduced in favour of the working classes. Vargas was elected constitutional
president at the end of his dictatorship, but after twenty years of government
he committed suicide in 1954 and left Brazil in the hands of the oil companies.
In 1955 the new government, led by Juscelino Kubitschek, opened Brazil up to multinational
companies who finaced the building of Brasilia, heart of the economic development
of the country.
The elections in 1961 were won by the labour party leader, and political heir
of Getulio Vargas, Joao Goulart. He introduced a series of laws regulating the
exportation of the financial dividends of the big companies and set down the guidelines
for agricultural reform. In 1964 Goulart was deposed in a coup caused by the conflict
between the financial sector and government and financed by American companies
with interests in the country.
During the next three years all the political leaders went into exile and political
parties were disbanded. By 1967 Brazil had a blocked bipartisan political system,
with the Mdb (Brazilian Democratic Movement) in permanent opposition and the Arena
(National Renewal Alliance) in government. They set up five military juntas led
by generals: Humberto de Alencar Castello Brancofino until 1968, Arthur de Costa
de Silva until 1969, Emilio Garrastaz Medici until 1974, Ernesto Geisel until
1978, and Joao Baptista Fugueiredo until 1983.
Brazil became the world’s fifth biggest arms exporter, during this period. But
in 1979 general Figueiredo was faced with a slump in the economy and various social
changes brought about by a noteable increase in trade union influence led by Luiz
Inicio da Silva (known as Lula). In 1983 the military junta accepted the electoral
victory of Tancredo Neves of the Mdb in exchange for the nomination of Jose Sarney
of the government party as vice-president.
The new government only lasted two years however: Neves became unexpectedly ill
and died leaving the country in the hands of vice-president Sarney who, although
close to military interests, carried on the Mdb programme. The Sarney government
initiated a policy of universal suffrage, legalised reformist parties, reformed
the constitution (with the election of the president) and started a project of
economic reform. This failed because of pressure from the financial sector which
forced the government to abandon its ambitious agricultural reform programme.
The first democratic elections were therefore only held only in 1989. Lula of
the Partito dei Lavoratori (Worker’s Party) was defeated by Fernando Collor de
Mello, conservative. He announced a plan of containment for inflation through
the privatization of national enterprise, which failed immediately causing public
unrest and riots involving above all young people (ninhos de rua). During the
three years of the Collor government about five thousand street children were
killed in Brazil, hectares of forest were destroyed for mining purposes, epidemics
effecting the indigenous population increased and unemployment levels rose causing
a rise in inflation of approximately 400%.
Collor was removed from office in 1992 and was substituted by the vice-president
Itamar Franco, who tried to give his government a positive image by nominating
a competent Minister for Finance, Fernando Henrique Cardoso. Cardoso presented
a new plan for development (the Real plan, which introduced a new currency, the
Real). His battle against inflation was discreetly successful and he became the
most popular politician in Brazil. He won the 1994 and the 1998 elections beating
Lula.
A series of financial scandals then weakened the government position which was
unable to brave the United States recession with its resulting decrease in exports
and the Argentinian crisis which hit the whole of South America. In 2002 the failure
of the government programme worked in favour of Lula’s electoral campaign
In fact Ignacio Lula da Silva, known popularly as Lula, became president of Brazil
in 2003. His election was wanted and celebrated above all by the “Movimento Trabalhadores
sem Terra” the Movement of Landless Workers, a group which has struggled for years,
in Brazil, for the rights of the poor. The president has promised to rectify a
difficult situation, inherited from preceding governments.
POLITICS
Lula’s fight against poverty is aimed at eliminating hunger and improving levels
of literacy. To this end the “Zero Hunger” project has been set up. This is a
strategic programme to fight hunger and its causes which generate social exclusion.
It aims to guarantee the alimental security of the Brazilian population through
a series of structural, specific and local policies. “Zero Hunger” is not an assistance
programme, but a programme of social inclusion which tries to accompany the families
involved in a journey leading from exclusion to inclusion, from poverty to the
generation of income, from dependancy to citizenship.
Straight after Lula came to office, the ministers of th Workers Party (PT) fixed
government priorities, deferring military and building commitments to divert funds
towards the food emergency. The reform of the civil code has given the inhabitants
of the favelas property rights to their houses and landless peasants to their
plots of land. To help cope with the dramatic economic situation, Lula has created
a commission of Brazilian industrialists and business people who have already
managed to reduce inflation.
The country is still in a critical state, however: a report from Amnesty International
compares the levels of violence to those in a war zone. The government has been
active, too, on an international front proposing the creation of a world fund
against food emergency, meeting representatives of the World Monetary Fund and
the World Bank, president George Bush and all the European leaders and participating
in meetings of the no global movement. Lula has also placed great emphasis on
the development of rapport between South American countries, establishing excellent
relationships with almost all the South American leaders and supporting the Mercosur
Project a Latin american common market which works outside United States commercial
interests (contrary to the Alca Project which is backed by Washington).
There are a lot of political parties in Brazil: PMDB or Brazilian Democratic
Party (Michel TEMER), PTB or Brazilian Labour Party (Jose Carlos MARTINEZ), PSDB
or Brazilian Social Democracy Party (Senator Jose ANIBAL), PSB or Brazilian socialist
Party (Miguel ARRAES), PPB or Brazilian Progressive Party (Paolo Salim MALUF),
PC doB or Brazilian Communist Party (Renato RABELLO), PDT or Democratic Labour
Party (Lionel BRIZOLA), PV or Green Party (leader unknown), PFL or Liberal Front
Party (Jorge BORNHAUSEN), PL or Liberal Party (MP Veldemar COSTA Neto), PRONA
or National Order Reconstruction Party (Dr. Eneas CARNEIRO), PPS or Popular socialist
Party (Senator Roberto FREIRE), PSD or Social Democratic Party (leader unknown),
PT or Worker’s Party (Jose GENOINO).
There are also political groups: the left wing of the Catholic church, the Movement
of the Landless Workers, the Work Union linked to the PT.
SOCIETY
Indigenous tribe divided by states
Acre: 9,868 tribal groups; Amawaka, Nawa, Arara, Nukuini, Ashaninka, Poyanawa, Deni,
Shanenawa, Jaminawa, Yawanawa, Katukina, Kaxinawa, Kulina, Manxineri.
Alagoas: 5,993 tribal groups; Cocal, Jeripanco, Kariri-Xoco, Karapoto, Tingui-Boto, Wassu,
Xucuru-Kariri.
Amapa: 4,950 tribal groups; Galibi, Galibi-Marworno, Karipuna, Palikur, Wayampi, Wayana-Apalai.
Amazonas: 83,966 tribal groups; Apurina,Isse, Katwixi, Marimam, Parintintin, Tuyuca, Arapaso,
Jarawara, Katukina, Marubo, Paumari, Waimiri-atroari, Aripuana, Juma, Katwena, Matis, Piraha, Waiwai, Banava-Jafi,
Juriti, Kaxarari, Mawaiana, Pira-tapuya, Wanana, Baniwa, Kaixana, Maya, Suriana,
Wayampi, Bare, Kanamari, Kobema, Mayoruna, Tariana, Xereu, Deni, Kanamanti, Kokama,
Miranha, Tenharin, Yamamadi, Desan, Karafawyana, Korubo, Miriti, Tora, Yanomami,
Himarima, Karapana, Kulina, Munduruku, Tukano, Zuruaha, Hixkaryana, Karipuna,
Maku, Mura, Tukuna.
Bahia: 16,715 tribal groups; Arikose, Pankararu, Atikum, Pataxo, Botocudo, Ha Ha Hae,
Tuxa, Xucuru-Kariri.
Ceara: 5,365 tribal groups; Jenipapo, Kalabassa, Kaninde, Kariri, Pitaguari, Potiguara
Tabajara, Tapeba, Tremembe.
Espirito Santo: 1,700 tribal groups; Guarani (M’bya), Tupiniquim.
Goias: 346 tribal groups; Ava-Canoeiro, Karaja, Tapuya.
Maranhao: 18,371 tribal groups; Awa, Guaja, Guajajara, Kanela, Krikati, Timbira (Gaviao).
Mato Grosso: 25,123 tribal groups; Apiaka, Juruna, Mehinako, Rikbaksta, Yawalapiti, Arara,
Kalapalo, Metuktire, Suya, Zoro, Aweti, Kamayura, Munduruku, Tapayuna, Bakairi,
Karaja, Mynky, Tapirape, Bororo, Katitaulu, Nafukua, TERENA, Cinta, Larga, Kayabi,
Nambikwara, Trumai, Enawene-Nawa, Kayapo, Naravute, Umutina, Hahaintsu, Kreen-Akarore,
Panara, Waura, Ikpeng, Kuikuro, Pareci, Xavante, Irantxe, Matipu, Parintintin,
Xiquitano.
Minas Gerais: 7,338 tribal groups; Atikum, Xucuru-Kariri, Kaxixo, Krenak, Maxakali, Pankararu,
Pataxo, Tembe, Xakriaba.
Para: 20,185 tribal groups; Amanaye, Juruna, Parakana, Zo’e, Anambe, Karafawyana, Surui,
Apiaka, Karaja, Tembe, Arara, Katwena, Timbira, Arawete, Kaxuyuna, Tiriyo, Assurini,
Kayabi, Turiwara, Atikum, Kayapo, Wai-Wai, Guaja, Kreen-Akarore, Waiapi, Guarani,
Kuruaya, Wayana-Apalai, Himarima, Mawayana, Xereu, Hixkaryna, Munduruku, Xipaya.
Paraiba: 7,575 tribal groups; Potiguara.
Parana: 10,375 tribal groups; Guarani (M’baya and Nhandewa), Kaingang, Xeta.
Rio de Janeiro: 330 tribal groups; Guaranti.
Rio Grande do sul: 13,448 tribal groups; Guaranti, Guaranti M’baya, Kaingang.
Rondonia: 6,314 tribal groups; Aikana, Jabuti, Mutum, Urupa, Ajuru, Kanoe, Nambikwara,
Amondawa, Karipuna, Pakaanova, Arara, Karitiana, Paumelenho, Arikapu, Kaxarari,
Sakirabiap, Ariken, Koiaia, Surui, Arua, Kujubim, Tupari, Cinta, Larga, Makurap,
Uru, Eu, Wau, Gaviao, Meken, Urubu.
Roraima: 30,715 tribal groups; Ingarico, Maculi, Patamona, Taurepang, Waimiri-Atroari,
Wapixana, Waiwai, Yanomami, Ye’kuana.
Santa Catarina: 5,651 tribal groups; Guarani, Guarani M’bya, Guarani Nhandeva, Kaingang.
Sao Paolo: 2,716 tribal groups; Guarani, Guarani M’baya, Guarani Nhandeva, Kaingang, Krenak,
Pankararu, Terena.
Sergipe: 310 tribal groups; Xoco.
Tocantins: 7,193 tribal groups; Apinaye, Ava-Canoeiro, Guarani, Javae, Karaja, Kraho, Tapirape,
Xerente.
ECONOMY
The economy of Brazil has undergone a series of cycles, each of which based on
a single export product: sugar cane during the 16th and 17th centuries; precious metals (gold and silver) and stones (diamonds and emeralds)
during the 18th century and coffee during the 19th and the start of the 20th century. England’s influence on the Brazilian economy started at the beginning
of the 17th century when English merchants spread through all the cities in Brazil, especially
Rio de Janeiro, Recife and Salvador. By the middle of the 19th century imports were exclusively English. The English dominated other sectors
of the economy like banking and foreign loans, they virtually held the control
of the railways and had a monopoly on navigation. Small factories, especially
textiles, started to appear towards the middle of the 19th century. Under the rule of emperor Dom Pedro new technologies were introduced,
the industrial base was increased and more modern financial management practices
were adopted. With the collapse of the slave economy (it became cheaper to pay
the new immigrants than to keep slaves), the abolition of slavery in 1888 and
the advent of the repubblican regimes in1889 Brazil’s economy passed through a
decidedly difficult period. The attempts of the first repubblican governments
to stabilise the financial situation were not to much effect and the serious depression
of 1929 forced the country to undertake new strategies to improve the weak economy.
There was a first big move towards industrialisation during the First World War,
but Brazil only reached a certain level of modern economic development from 1930
onwards. The first steel-works in Brazil was built in Volta Redonda (State of
Rio de Janeiro) in the 40s. It was financed by the American EximBank. The process
of industrialization continued from 1950 to 1970 and brought about an expansion
in important areas of the economy such as the car, the oil and the steel industries.
During the years following the Second world War the increase of the Gross National
Product (GNP) was one of the highest in the world, having reached an average of
7.4% by 1974. During the 1970s Brazil, along with several other South American
countries absorbed the excess of liquidity from American, European and Japanese
banks. A great influx of foreign capital was directed towards investment in infrastructure,
while State companies grew up in areas which were unattractive to private investment.
The result was incredible; the GNP increased by an average of 8.5% per year
from 1970 to 1980, notwithstanding the negative effect of the world oil crisis.
The pro capite income rose 4 times in the same period to 2,200 dollars per year
in 1980.
In the meantime an unexpected but substantial increase in world interest rates
at the beginning of the 80s brought about a foreign debt crisis in all Latin America.
Brazil adopted severe economic measures to deal with this. These led to negative
growth figures. The interruption of foreign capital reduced investment in the
country. The size of the foreign debt hit public finance and increased the rate
of inflation. A series of measures were adopted during the second half of the
80s in an attempt to reach monetary stability. These included the end of indexing
( a policy which linked salaries and contracts to the level of inflation), and
the freezing of prices. In 1987 the government suspended the payment of interest
on foreign debt, until a recalculation of this was agreed upon with the creditors.
All of these measures didn’t have the hoped result but the Brazilian economy continued
to grow until the end of the 80s contributing sufficient surplus to the balance
of trade to cover the accumulated debt. The 90s, on the other hand, saw the beginning
of a process of privatization especially in the steel, fertiliser and telecommunications
sectors. Between 1991 and 1999 approximately 120 state companies were privatized
and national revenue was used principally to reduce debt. As a result of foreign
commerce reform, Brazil became one of the most open economies in the world, without
import restrictions. The ‘deregulation of the country was most evident in the
liberalization of financial policies and in the improvement of market policies
in the electronics and computer sectors, as well as in further privatization in
various sectors which had been subject to state monopoly up to that moment.
The Common Market of the South (Mercosul) was created with the signing of the
Assuncao Treaty by Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay on the 26 March 1991.
Chile and Bolivia are also associate members. They have participated in the creation
of an area of free commerce but do not participate in the customs agreement.
The pact became effective on 1 January 1995 with the creation of a duty free zone
and a partial area of free commerce. The aim of Mercosul is to allow the free
movement of capital, work and services between the four member countries: they
have agreed to maintain the same importation rates for certain products. Commerce
between the member countries of Mercosul has almost tripled since 1991. Brazil’s
commerce with the other three member countries reached 18.7 million dollars in
1997, compared with the 3.6 million in 1990. In April 1998 the four signed an
agreement with the Andes Pact to create Aicsa (Area of free commerce of South
America) which became operative on 2000.
The improvement of basic living conditions in Brazil has increased substantially
during the last 25 years. About 96% of dwellings now have drinking water, 75%
of which is supplied by public acqueducts and the remaining 25% by wells and natural
sources. About 73% of dwellings have a system of sewerage disposal, however rough,
and 88% have electricity. In the urban areas 90% of the population has drinking
water and sewerage systems and 98% has electricity. In rural areas on the other
hand, only 17% have drinking water and sewerage systems and 55% electricity. More
or less 70% of houses have refrigerators, and there is a car and a telephone for
every 10 members of the polulation. About 60% of Brazil’s energy sources are renewable.
64% of all oil consumed is produced in Brazil. It is the biggest exporter of iron
and one of the principal steel exporters in the world. Petroleum products, alluminium,
non-ferrous metals, fertilizers and cement are also produced. Amongst important
manufactured goods are cars, aeroplanes, electrical and electronic goods, clothing
and shoes. Brazil’s most important commercial partners include the United States,
Germany, Holland, Switzerland, Japan, Great Britain, France, Argentina, Mexico
and Canada. At the beginning of the 90s Brazil was amongst the 10 major economic
systems in the world. Exports make up 10% of the gross national product. The national
work force was approximately 70 million in 1999. Of these 39% worked in service
industries, 5.4% in agriculture and 24% in industry. 19.4% of the work force works
in commerce.
MASS MEDIA
There are a lot of newspapers in Brazil. Many of these can be consulted on the
internet. The most important papers can be seen on a site which contains newspapers
from the whole Latin American area: www.zonalatina.com
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